Global Marketing The UK food or drink product or brand must not be Essay

Global Marketing The UK food or drink product or brand must not be currently available in the selected market - Essay Example The company primary founders of the organization are John Wrigh, Adam Balcon, Richard Reed and Maurice Pinto (Wiggins, 2005). At the time of inception, the company had begun to operate with very few employees and possessed limited hierarchy in business. It should be noted that the organization does not own any personal juicing facilities. The corporation just contracts the vocation of mechanized smoothies to different sites. The founders of the company had commenced the business only after analyzing the emerging market demand of smootheis across all economies. With the essence of its superior products and marketing skills, the Innocent Drinks have experienced rising revenue from both its domestic and foreign markets. It at present owns the widest market demand share for smoothies in London. However, the organization is facing monetary crunches in business and has hence joined hands with Coca Cola only for financing purposes. At present Coca Cola owns 90% stake of Innocent Drinks but its commercial strategies and policies for international are considered and determined by its own senior management officials (Lucas, 2013). Thus, the marketing official of the company ensures that any new foreign business expansion program is viable and rational. This is because; raising money for unproductive projects would become non feasible and challenging for the officials. Innocent Drinks had never resisted expending its business in new markets, despite of facing numerous financial problems in commerce. Previously, the company had expanded its trade in some international markets by distributing its products in the new marketplaces through giant multinational supermarket chains like Tesco and Sainsbury. The main markets of the company are Ireland and U.K. Almost 90% revenue of the firm is acquired from the sales in these two economies. However, overtime the company has successfully entered within the markets of Netherlands, Belgium, France and Luxembourg

Can Lebanon have peace if they started a Truth and Reconciliation Essay

Can Lebanon have peace if they started a Truth and Reconciliation Committee like South Africa - Essay Example The Maronite Christian and Muslim communities have fighting for equitable sectarian political power sharing among them. This paper discusses if there can be peace in Lebanon when a Truth and Reconciliation Committee (TRC) is established just like in the case of South Africa. Truly, it is extremely difficult to distinguish victims from the offenders during a civil war. There have been many attempts to bring peace in the Lebanese community but these peace talks ignore the underlying causes of the conflict such as the political, social and confessional cleavages. Arguably, reparative justice can effectively address the assumed disagreement between justice, peace and reconciliation. Reparative justice is built on various elements including, active participation of the offender and victim; exploration of the motives and main causes by the offender and victim; consideration of necessary outcomes for restitution by the offender, victim and the community at large; and reconciliation of the antagonistic groups among others. According to Quinn (11), power sharing and social transformation are very important in the reconciliation process. Arguably, discovering the truth can be done by pardoning main actors thereby creating the feeling of injustice in the society. It can also be done behind the doors so as to avoid disclosure of the witnesses. Even though this process is not inclusive and can be criticized by many people, it is the key to a lasting reconciliation. Special tribunal for Lebanon was established for many reasons including trying those who were suspected of assassinating Lebanese Prime Minister, Hariri and many other people (Moriarty and Eva 147). Notably, traditional tribunal systems would not be effective in Lebanon, as it would promote the existing cleavages instead of conquering them. The Lebanese officials ignored both justice and reconciliation and as a result, justice

Satisfaction Motivation Hygiene

Satisfaction Motivation Hygiene True motivation comes from achievement, personal development, job satisfaction and recognition. This statement constitutes the core proposal of the important theorist we will be discussing. Frederick Herzberg was an important psychologist who became one of the most significant names in management on the 60s. His theories are still recognized as having been crucial to the development of the managerial sciences. The purpose of this paper is to analytically discuss the impact and consequences that his theories have had in the field of modern management. He is most recognized for his work on job enrichment and for his Motivation-Hygiene Theory. Frederick Herzberg was born on April, 19th of 1923 in Lynn, Massachusetts. Herzberg was a student at the City College of New York. He interrupted his studies midway to enlist in the army, returning to graduate in 1946. He died in Salt Lake City in early 2000. Witnessing a concentration camp in World War II, as well as talking with Germans he encountered during the War, were the catalysts he believed to be responsible for his interest in motivation. He expressed this interest in motivation by considering the factors that influence peoples behaviour in organisations. His Motivation-Hygiene Theory or Two Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction was published in 1959. The two factors influencing people according to his theory were: Satisfaction as a result of motivating factors such as: achievement, recognition, promotion, responsibility, growth. Dissatisfaction as a result of hygiene factors including: pay and benefits, company policies, relationship with co-workers, the work environment, job security, employee status, supervision, company assets. (Herzberg, 1959) He deemed that motivating factors will improve satisfaction, but their impact on dissatisfaction will be insubstantial. (Herzberg, 1959) On the other hand, if hygiene factors are not present they will cause dissatisfaction, yet their presence does not significantly affect satisfaction in the long-term. Central to the interpretation of this theory will be the recognition of the existence of factors that truly motivate (motivating factors) and others that could lead to dissatisfaction (hygiene factors). Herzberg considered human needs on two levels: the animal instinct of avoiding pain, and the necessity of personal psychological development. Similarly, long ago, Maslow understood perfectly and endeavoured to instruct managerial principals that even today, many organisations have failed to institute. Herzbergs theory remains as relevant now as it was when it was first published. Excepting the fact that responsibility, justice, fairness and compassion are global standards in contemporary business. Apart from his main theories, it is important to understand that Herzbergs primary concern was the well-being of organisational workforces. He was determined to introduce more humanity and caring principals into the workplace. He focused on explaining how to manage people humanely, in the interest of their comfort. So the question we could pose is: How important are high wages for us to feel satisfied? Intriguingly, the answer will be that although people complain about their earnings constantly, surveys and research have proven that there are factors that have more motivational power than money when making decisions concerning the workplace. In surveys, the reasons that tend to top the list are lack of job stimuli and poor prospect of advancement. Herzberg believed that these motivators would generate positive work attitudes because they satisfy one of Maslows hierarchical needs: the need for self-actualization the ultimate human need (Maslow, 1954). However, the presence of these factors can cause satisfaction, yet when they are not present, it does not lead to dissatisfaction. By contrast, hygiene factors which simply cause temporary results, posses the power of creating great dissatisfaction, but lack of these factors in the workplace does not cause a large degree of satisfaction. For Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction in the workplace will not be dissatisfaction, just simply lack of satisfaction. Likewise, the opposite of dissatisfaction in your job will not be satisfaction but no dissatisfaction. As a practical example of this assumption: if the college water were to stop running for a week, this would represent a work conditions hygiene factor, and it would give cause for our professors to feel very dissatisfied. However, since our professors are normally accustomed to the water running and working properly, it does not give them reason to feel particularly motivated or satisfied. In 1968, Herzberg presented a work called KITA (a polite acronym for â€Å"kick in the ass†), where he differentiated between motivational and movement factors (Herzberg, 1968) He classified KITA into three different possible types: Negative physical KITA Negative physiological KITA Positive KITA Certainly, in modern society, managers infrequently deal with their employees using negative KITA, which is the use of physical contact on a member of the staff to enforce work. Negative KITA is indeed fairly useless as a tool to motivate workers. Positive KITA conversely can be summarised in the word reward. It is the act of rewarding an action with bonuses or incentives. Although this is a common practice for modern managers, according to Herzberg, positive KITA is not motivational. Positive KITA will make movement much faster, encouraging the worker to perform at his best in a certain task. However, he considered that there were no facts to prove that the effects of this reward were going to have long-lasting results. He believed that individuals were not actually motivated to work harder after completing the task, as a consequence of a reward. He judged that the workers were merely temporarily moved, and hence their performance did not persist once the bonus was received. So he considered rewards to be a mere movement factor. Referring to the motivational factors previously cited in this essay, he concludes that only the achievement of these factors can create long-lasting satisfaction for the employees, and therefore a better work attitude. Additionally, when the workforce finds this stimulation internally in the workplace, they will perform more efficiently. Herzbergs theory has been criticized by the theorist, Locke. (Locke, E. 1976) He proposed alternate sources for the generation of job satisfaction. He believed the mind and the body to be inextricably related. And therefore, the objective should be to satisfy them both. As an example, he gives the biological need of hunger, and he specifies that an act like eating can serve not only to quell hunger pangs, but also as pleasure for the mind. Herzberg placed emphasis on the number of times a particular factor was cited in reaching his conclusions, believing that those more encountered on the lists were the most satisfying or dissatisfying factors. However, even if a dissatisfying factor was registered numerous times, it does not necessarily follow that this was a major problem or even that the employees found it more irritable than infrequent problems, which tend to create higher levels of dissatisfaction for them. Conversely, Locke suggests the prioritisation of intensity over frequency. He recognized that an employee could reach his maximum levels of intensity when either achieving or failing a task. (Locke, E. 1976) Analysing the statements in Herzbergs theories, it becomes clear that they are rather simplistic. One might easily imagine that what gives cause for motivation to one person, could well be the cause of dissatisfaction in someone else. For example, the enlargement of responsibilities can be a clear motivator for some people as they can thereby develop in their careers. At the same time, it can be dissatisfying for other people, especially if their wages are not proportionally linked to the responsibilities that they have assumed. It might be necessary to consider the reality that employees should not be seen as an homogeneous group, but as a compilation of individuals, of whom only a proportion will be motivated by any given factor. It will therefore be prudent upon every manager to take the time to try to determine the unique characteristics of each member of his workforce. Thus, will he comprehend what is necessary to gain the satisfaction of his employees. Although Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory, when analysed deeply, might seem somewhat incomplete or basic, it is impossible to disregard that it is given credence and has been studied from shortly after its initial publication up until the present day. Consequently, it can be affirmed that, even with its faults, there is a lot of truth in the theory, and that the different factors he cited are generally more likely to cause satisfaction/dissatisfaction to the workforce of an organisation. Undoubtedly, Frederick Herzbergs main contribution to modern management has been his recognition of the factors that could motivate or dissatisfy a workforce. It was through his ideas and research that we now know that people endeavour to get â€Å"hygiene needs† merely as a reaction of discomfort, caused when the factors to achieve those needs are absent. Then and now, unsuccessful organisations fail to understand that it its very difficult to truly motivate their staff by concentrating on meeting their hygiene needs. At the same time, people are truly motivated, and hence perform at their best, when the motivational factors are achieved (i.e.: personal growth, development, etc.) which come to differentiate themselves from the hygiene factors because of the self-fulfilment they create for individuals. In the analytical study of the details of Herzbergs theory, we might consider an actual example drawn from daily life. Lets take the example of someone who inherits a large amount of money from a relative, enabling that person to live a comfortable life thereafter. For some people, this will represent the opportunity of a lifetime, since they can stop working and start enjoying a pleasant lifestyle, making use of their new wealth. However, there will be other people who, though giving-up their old jobs, will take the opportunity to create their own business. According to Herzbergs theory (and not really questioned today), these people who begin working on perusing their own desires will be satisfied and truly motivated, regardless of the money which they make, or that which they have already. People achieve these kinds of goals when they are truly motivated by factors such as: personal growth, responsibility, attainment, etc. If we examine the situation, it appears most certain that these people are not solely motivated by mere monetary desires. Since the venture of creating a new business, especially when you do not need it, involves persistent effort and a considerable level of commitment. Following the logic that the project has no guarantee of success, it would be erroneous to believe that they were motivated by potential income alone. Without resting importance on the value of money, we would consider it highly probable that the life of the person who stopped working would become rather empty and monotone. And at the same time, if the person does not know what to do with their money, it could easily vanish. On the other hand, if someone takes the opportunity to do whatever he enjoys or is good at, it is likely that he is going to achieve success. So based on this example, we can opine that the money itself will not be a significant motivator. Also for us as students, Herzbergs theory provides a pattern for us to follow. We certainly need some sense of satisfaction in order to be interested and feel motivated in our studies. It is always fulfilling when professors (our managers technically) endeavour to implement factors which might encourage motivation (i.e. feedback, advice, etc.) In opposition, when our hygiene needs are not meet: (i.e. deteriorated classrooms, unusable computers, etc.) , it can be a great cause of dissatisfaction. However, when these factors are in order, it is not a cause for us to show appreciation. In conclusion, at first glance it might appear that Herzbergs theory is simple and rather incomplete. Yet all critics agree that his theory encompasses a number of facts that were ignored before Herzberg came into play. He discovered certain fundamental problems that needed to be addressed in order to maintain employee well-being in a company. Herzberg contributed tremendously to the understanding that managers could create an hygienically effective environment, and he provided them with the important factors that he considered to be fundamental to the pursuit of improvement in staff performance. Even though his theory is a general one, focusing as it does on the frequency rather than on the intensity of problems, it certainly provides an excellent guide for managers in their aim of discovering and setting standards in factors that, if present, would benefit their business. Obviously, as discussed earlier, each person or company will react differently to any given action or situation. For this reason, rather than applying Herzbergs theory textually, managers should dedicate some time to investigating and understanding the individual reasons that might motivate or could cause dissatisfaction to a member of their staff. Putting this strategy into practice, managers could easily identify the problems that might be affecting the staffs well-being, as well as directly make use of those factors which they reckon might improve employee performance. Following on from this idea, it should also be easy to satisfy the hygiene needs of their employees. In case of a shortcoming in these f actors, managers should work together with their staff to address and resolve these deficiencies. Equilibrium and well-being is best achieved through striving always for a constant balance when making our decisions. Hence, every person must evaluate their own individual reasons and fulfilment factors to give a meaning to their lives. Managers, in addition to finding these individual meanings, must in order to be successful, take-on the responsibility of establishing the best possible working circumstances, both for themselves and for their employees. Applying the basis of Herzbergs theory, certainly has the potential to create harmony, and hence a workforce motivated and satisfied with their jobs. It is highly probable that the output of the organisation will thereby be optimised as well. References Ajzen, I. Fishibein, M (1980), Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour, Pentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ Hertzberg, Frederick (1959) The Motivation to Work, New York. Herzberg, F. (1987) ‘One More Time: How do you motivate your Employees? New York. Locke, E.A. (1970) ‘The supervision is a motivator, Washington DC Locke, E. A. (1975) ‘The nature and cost of job satisfaction Chicago, Illinois. Maslow, A.H (1954) ‘Motivation and Personality, Harper Row Publisher, New York, NY. www.businessball.com 04 Nov 16:30 www.mftrou.com â€Å"Management for the rest of us† 15 Nov 12:00 www.emeraldasight.com 26 Nov 14:30

Lender Liability and the Duty of Good Faith :: essays research papers

Lender Liability and the Duty of Good Faith I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction From time to time, lenders and their attorneys announce that lender liability is no longer an issue with which the lending community needs to be concerned. What usually prompts this proclamation of the death of lender liability is a recent case in which a court has summarily rejected a borrower’s claim that the lender violated the duty of good faith and fair dealing. Many courts have rejected borrowers’ lawsuits which are based on allegations of the violation of the lender’s duty of good faith. Nevertheless, lender liability should continue to be an area of concern to lenders. Although courts often dismiss cases based on a borrower’s claims of lender bad faith, in other cases courts find that lenders have indeed engaged in conduct that constitutes bad faith. Most courts carefully examine the unique facts of each case, consider the testimony of experts, and listen to the ever-inventive arguments of counsel. A loan agreement, like every other contract governed by the Uniform Commercial Code (the â€Å"U.C.C.†), imposes on both the borrower and the lender â€Å"an obligation of good faith in its performance or enforcement.† This simple good faith performance obligation may appear to be an uncontroversial codification of a basic, minimal standard of human behavior. It is proving, however, to be problematic to commercial lenders. Some courts have been quick to hold that, under certain circumstances, a lender, which believed it was merely exercising its contractual rights, nevertheless may have breached the duty of good faith performance obligation. For example, in 1985 the Sixth Circuit, invoking the good faith performance obligation, affirmed a jury verdict awarding $7,500,000 to a borrower whose lender refused to advance funds under a loan agreement, which specifically and unequivocally permitted the lender to exercise sole and absolute discretion to refuse to advance additional funds. The Alaska Supreme Court, likewise invoking the good faith performance obligation, held that a borrower could recover both actual and punitive damages from a lender who had taken possession of collateral without notice, notwithstanding the unambiguous terms of the loan and security agreement authorizing such repossession. On the other hand, many courts have abandoned the imposition of good faith obligations on the lender beyond what is set forth in certain loan agreements. In 1987, the Bankruptcy Court for the District of Massachusetts held that the holder of a demand note does not need a good faith reason or any reason at all to demand payment.

How to create a completely peaceful world Essay

To create a fully peaceful world, both Federalism and non-violent resistance are necessary. Federalism and non-violent resistance can cooperate well to completely eliminate war in the world. In this essay, I am arguing that neither federalism nor non-violent resistance can achieve a peaceful world independently. War comes from conflicts between communities or nations. We can find the roots of conflicts from human nature. I believe that the human nature is a complex combination including both Hobbes’ human nature theory and Hegel’s master and slave theory. By looking at human nature, we can see that federalism, which aims to establish a powerful global government, and non-violent resistance, which includes demonstrations, obstruction, refusal to cooperate, boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience and so on, can deal with the conflicts and achieve peace (Awad 158). In the real world, however, there are some challenges to set up a powerful global federal government and perform the non-violent resistance policy. The challenges are unsolved in this essay. Firstly, a single world government with its own dominant army is one of the necessary prerequisite for a peaceful world. The reason comes from Hobbes’ human nature theory. Hobbes believes that human nature is the drive for gain, safety and reputation (Hobbes 30). The drive cause conflicts between human beings. Moreover, â€Å"for as to the strength of body, the weakest has the strength to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himself† (Hobbes 29). Thus, without a powerful government, the human society will inevitably be in war, and â€Å"such a war, as is of every man against every man.† (Hobbes 30). And consequently, the â€Å"life of man will be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. † (Hobbes 31). At present, the international society is very compatible with Hobbes’ theory. With nuclear Chen 2 weapons, the weakest nation has the potential ability to destroy the strongest nation. Each nation has the nature drive for economic gain, safety and glory. Conflicts between nations are inevitable because of the natural drive. Therefore, war becomes inevitable. Furthermore, the fast growing globalization has changed the world to be a â€Å"small village†. Before the industrial revolution, people needed months or years to travel cross the continents or oceans. Geographic barriers greatly reduce the incentive of waging war to a faraway nation. The conflicts of gain, safety and reputation were greatly weakened by geographic distance. For example, no nation wanted to wage war from North America to the Middle East thousands of years ago. In fact, lots of nations were sort of isolated from the other nations. Thus, in the ancient time, there had no war of every nation against every nation. However, nowadays technology has made the geographic barrier almost be vanished. Information transfers within the world in a few seconds. People can travel to anywhere in a couple of days. The world becomes a â€Å"small village†. In this â€Å"small village†, every nation is competing with others for gain, safety, and reputations. With the natural conflicts between nations and the deadly power of nuclear weapons, sooner or later, the world will be inevitably in a war of every nation against every nation, and in such a war, the life will be â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.† Only a world government with dominant military power can prevent such horrible condition. The world government can use its great coercive power to maintenance the peace between nations. If there is a war between nations or a civil war inside a nation, the world government can step in by its powerful army to stop the war. In terms of Hobbes’ first natural law, man is â€Å"to seek peace, and follow it â€Å"(Hobbes 33). Here, nations also apply to the first natural law, which is that all nations seek peace, so they follow the global government. Chen 3 However, it should be noted that peace can not be fully achieved by the coercive global government. The global government uses its coercive military power to stop war, but it cannot fully prevent war. For example, when two nations have conflicts, and fight in a war, the world government can only send its powerful army to stop the war after the war has begun. On the other hand, the world government may have to use war to stop the war. For example, if one nation invades another nation, the world government may have to attack the invader to force it to retreat from the victim country. So the war still exists. Under this condition, non-violent resistance is the only way to prevent the war. Non-violent resistance is associated with Hegel’s view of human nature. Hegel believes that human nature is the drive of gaining recognitions from others. To gain recognition, individual must struggle to have superior power than others. Therefore, individual can have freedom as a master to force others to be slaves. The slaves have to work for the masters, and be surviving by the exchange of acknowledging the master’s identity (Hegel 36). According to Hegel’s theory of human nature, the conflicts between human beings are not necessary to lead to war or violence. In other words, war is not inevitable. Since the human nature is to seek for recognition from others, if other individuals are killed by war or violence, the recognition by the other individual can not exist. So, human beings do not naturally have incentive to use violence or war to solve conflicts. Human beings, however, must want to only threaten others with death for recognition. The threat will never be credible, because the death of the slavers will make the master be meaningless. A master can not be a master if there are no slavers at all. Therefore, non-violent resistance makes sense in dealing with conflicts in the world. For example, suppose there is a very small community with only two men inside. In terms of Hegel’s Chen 4 human nature theory, both of the two men will struggle for recognition of being the master. The natural drive will cause conflicts between the two men. To solve the conflict, the stronger man will make a death threat to the weaker man. However, the stronger man actually will never kill the weaker man if the weaker man does not use violence against the stronger man, because the stronger man desires the recognition from the weaker man. So the weaker man does not need to fear the death threat. At the same time, the weaker man can not use violence to fight with the stronger man, because the weaker man will definitely be killed during the violent fight. Therefore, the weaker man can deal with the conflicts by non-violent resistance. Firstly, he knows that a violent fight will certainly cause his death. Secondly, he knows that non-violent resistance will never cause his death. By non-violent resistance, the weaker man does not obey the stronger man’s order and he does not cooperate with the stronger man. Eventually, the stronger man cannot be a true master, and the weaker man will not be a true slave. Non-violent resistance can be used between communities and nations as well. In the global community, nations have natural desire to be acknowledged to be the dominant nation. For example, during the cold war era, both the Soviet Union and the United States wanted to dominate the world. With much greater military power, the two superpowers have invaded some weaker countries. If all the weaker countries have used non-violent resistance strategy, the war could be prevented. Meanwhile, since the weaker countries do not cooperate with the invader, the weaker countries would never be truly occupied. I am arguing that non-violent resistance can prevent war or violence, but I do not mean that non-violent resistance can always prevent war or violence. The assumption of using the non-violent resistance strategy is that the two individuals or nations in conflicts have very distinct Chen 5 power difference. If the two nations have similar power, nobody can know which nation is undoubtedly more powerful. Thus, while having conflicts, the two similar powerful nations have to fight each other to find out who is really more powerful. As a result, there will have a war before the non-violent resistance to prevent wars. Thus, both federalism and non-violent resistance are necessary to achieve a completely peaceful world. The global government must have superior military power to deal with conflicts between nations. Inside individual nations, the national government must have dominant military power to deal with conflicts between different communities of the nation. While facing conflicts, all the weaker sides, for example, a community which has conflicts with the national government, or a nation which has conflicts with the global government, must deal with the conflicts by either negotiation or non-violent resistance instead of war or violence. Finally, the completely peaceful world will be achieved. Both Federalism and non-violent resistance are necessary because I believe that human nature is a complex combination of both Hobbes’ and Hegel’s theory. Human beings have the first natural desire for safety. The second natural desires are gain, glory and recognition. Without life, all the gain, glory and recognition are meaningless. So safety must be the first natural desire. When security is guaranteed, human beings will turn to pursue gain, glory and recognition. In theory, I argue that Federalism and non-violent resistance can completely eliminate war. In the real world, however, there are some challenges to realize Federalism and non-violent resistance. For instance, many people have Hobbesian syndrome. They buy into Hobbes’ human nature theory, but they do not agree with Hegel’s theory. Thus, they believe that war is inevitable without a powerful global government. However, there is no powerful global government now, so Chen 6 the people who have Hobbesian syndrome always suggest investing heavily on military resources to prepare for the future â€Å"inevitable war†. If a superpower holds this view, it is very difficult to establish a global government with dominant military power. For example, today the only superpower, the United States, has nearly half of the whole world military spending annually. If the United States does not disarm, it is very difficult to set up a global government which has greater military power than the United States. It is a circle, without a powerful global government, the United States believes that it must engage great military resources. When the superpower United States engage great military resources, it is very difficult to set up a global government with a more powerful military. Another challenge comes from the non-violent strategy. When facing conflicts, sometimes it is ambiguous to know whether the conflicts come from the desire for safety, gain, glory or recognition. If the conflicts come from recognition, the non-violent resistance strategy will be very effective to prevent war or violence. However, if the conflicts come from safety, gain and glory, using non-violent resistance might just simply like suicide. In history, there were lots of evidences of genocide incidents. For example, in the World War II, Nazi tried to kill all the Jews. So it is difficult to persuade everybody to always behave non-violent resistance while having conflicts with much more powerful competitors. In sum, human nature is the natural desires of safety, gain, glory and recognition. To fulfill the natural desires, conflicts between individuals or nations will emerge. The conflicts are the very root of wars. A powerful world government and universally accepted non-violent resistance strategy can terminate wars in the world. However, there are some unsolved challenges of establishing a powerful world government and accepting non-violent resistance universally. Awad, Mubarak E., â€Å"Nonviolent Resistance: A Strategy for the Occupied Territories† from Non-violence in theory and Practice, Robert L Holmes. Ed. Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1990. Hegel, G.W.F, â€Å"Independence and Dependence of Self-Consciousness: Relations of Master and Servant† from Phenomonology of Spirit, 2nd ed. Forrest E.Baird and Walter Kaufmann, eds, Prentice-Hall, 2000. Hobbes, Thomas, â€Å"excerpt† from Leviathan, Public Domain, 1651.

Personality Notes Essay

* Personality is the unique and relatively stable way in which a person thinks, feels, and behaves. Character is value judgments of a person’s ethical and moral behavior. Temperament refers to the enduring characteristics that a person is born with. * There are four main personality theories. The psychodynamic perspective focuses on the role of the unconscious mind in the development of personality and biological causes of personality differences. The behaviorist perspective is focused on theories of learning and the effect of the environment on behavior. The humanistic perspective focuses on a person’s life choices and experiences in personality development. The trait perspective is not concerned with how personality forms, but the end characteristics of personality. * Freud believed the mind was divided into three parts: the preconscious, the conscious and the unconscious. Conscious is where current awareness exists. Preconscious contains memories, information and events that one is easily aware of. The unconscious is where thoughts, feelings, memories and other information is kept that is not voluntarily or easily brought into consciousness. The id is the first and most primitive part of the personality. It is unconscious, pleasure-seeking and amoral. The pleasure principle is the principle by which the id functions, immediate satisfaction without regard for consequences. * The ego is the second part of personality that comes from a need to deal with reality. It’s mostly conscious, rational and logical. It functions on the reality principle, satisfying the needs of the id only when negative consequences will not result. * The final part of the personality according to Freud is the superego, which functions as a moral center. It contains the conscience, which produces pride or guilt depending on how acceptable the behavior is. * Fixation is defined by Freud as getting stuck in a developmental stage. * Psychosexual stages are the five stages of personality development that Freud tied directly to a child’s sexual development. * The first stage is the oral stage in the first year of life. The mouth is the erogenous zone. It is governed by the id. Weaning is the major conflict. * The second stage is the anal stage from 1-3 years, in which the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the major conflict. Children who rebel against toilet training are said to grow into an anal expulsive personality: messy, destructive and hostile. Children who refuse to poop are said to grow into an anal retentive personality: neat, fussy, stingy and stubborn. * The third stage is the phallic stage, from 3-6 years, in which the child develops sexual feelings. Freud believed that children developed an Oedipus complex during this stage, in which they develop a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of the same-sex parent. Latency is the fourth stage, occurring during the school years, in which the sexual feelings are repressed in order for the child to develop in other ways. * Genital stage is the fifth stage, from puberty to death, in which the child has to come to terms with their sexual feelings. * Psychoanalysis was Freud’s term for the theory of personality and the therapy based on it. * The Neo-Freudians were followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories. * Carl Gustav Jung disagreed with Freud about the unconscious mind. He believed there was a personal unconscious, as Freud described, and a collective unconscious of all memories shared by the human species. Collective human memories are called archetypes. * Alfred Adler also disagreed with Freud about sexuality being the driving force of personality. He believed that as children, people felt inferior to more powerful adults and everything after that point was not seeking of pleasure, but seeking of superiority. He also developed a theory that birth order had input into personality. Karen Horney didn’t study directly with Freud, but taught his work until she left because of disagreement over penis envy, which she countered with womb envy. She didn’t focus on sexuality, but instead anxiety. She said that children are born with basic anxiety, which is created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults. Those with less secure upbringings end up with neurotic personalities, in which they have maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships. Freud did no experiments and only based his theory off of his own experiments. He took it as his right to interpret experiences of his clients as fact or fantasy depending on how they fit in his theory. * According to behaviorists, personality is no more than a set of habits. Habits are defined as a set of well-learned responses that have become automatic. * Social cognitive learning theorists focus on both the effects of other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectancies of learning. In the social cognitive view of Alfred Bandura, behavior is also governed by cognitive processes like anticipating, judging, memory and anticipation. * Reciprocal determinism is Bandura’s explanation of how the environment, personal characteristics and behavior itself affect future behaviors. Environment includes the physical surroundings, people who may or may not be present and the potential reinforcement in the setting. Self-efficacy is one of the most important variables Bandura speaks of. It is the individual’s expectancy of how effective their efforts to accomplish a goal will be in any particular circumstance. * One important pattern of responding is the locus of control, which is the tendency for people to assume they either do or do not have control over events they experience in their own lives. Like Bandura, Rotter believed a combination of factors affected behavioral response: expectancy and reinforcement value. Expectancy is a person’s subjective feeling that a particular behavior will lead to a reinforcing consequence. The humanistic perspective is the â€Å"third force† in psychology, which focuses on aspects of personality that make people uniquely human. * Carl Rogers believed that humans are always striving to fulfill their innate capacities and abilities to become all that their genetic makeup will allow. Striving for fulfillment is called the self-actualization tendency. An important tool for this is self-concept, an image of oneself that develops from important interactions with significant people in one’s life. Self is awareness of one’s own personal characteristics and level of functioning. Two components of self-concept are real self, which is one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits and abilities, and ideal self, the perception of what one should be or would like to be. * Positive regard refers to the warmth, affection, love and regard that comes from significant others in one’s life. Unconditional positive regard has no strings attached. Conditional positive regard depends on what a person is doing. * A fully functioning person, according to Rogers, is in touch with and trusting the deep, innermost urges and feelings. The trait theories describe characteristics that make up human personality in order to predict future behavior. Traits are consistent, enduring ways of thinking, feeling or behaving. * Allport was one of the first trait theorists. He and his partner looked through the dictionary, picked words that could be traits, then narrowed it town. He believed traits were wired in to the nervous system to guide behavior. * Raymond Cattell built on that and described two types of traits, surface traits and source traits. Surface traits are easily seen by others. Source traits are more basic and form the curve of personality. Introversion is a dimension of personality in which people withdraw from excess stimulation. * The five-factor model or the Big Five is a model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions. Openness is a willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences. Conscientiousness refers to the thought a person gives to organization and thoughtfulness of others; dependability. Extraversion divides people into introverts (solitary) and extroverts (social). Agreeableness is the basic emotional style of the person. Neuroticism is the degree of emotional stability or instability. * Mischel has emphasized that there is a trait-situation interaction where the particular circumstances of a situation will influence how a trait is expressed. * Behavioral genetics is the field of study devoted to discovering the genetic bases for personality traits. Several studies have found that the five factor traits have a 50% heritability over several cultures. Interviews cause the problem of false reports and the halo effect, in which a person’s personality is so good that the interviewer interprets them to be good all around, especially when that is false. * Projective tests present ambiguous visual stimulus to clients and ask them to respond with whatever comes to mind. The Rorscach inkblot test uses 10 inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli. The Thematic Aperception Test uses 20 black and white pictures of people. Projective tests are very subjective, not very reliable or valid. * Other tools for assessment are direct observation and personality inventory.